How to do argumentative philosophy essays*
I. Introduction
Thomas Edison’s much quoted remark that invention is l% inspiration and 99% perspiration is perhaps a case of self-effacing understatement. Nevertheless, his point, when applied to the matter of writing philosophy essays, deserves attention. No one can systematize or lay down rules that will result in inspiration or creativity. This little guide, however, is written with the conviction that a large share of the burden of the composition of an essay is almost mechanical and rules can be laid down such that, if they are followed, a reasonably good result can be confidently predicted.
II. Groundwork
a. First Thoughts
Let us start with a couple of typical philosophy essay topics: “Aristotle on Happiness” and “What is Justice in the Moral Thought of Mill?”
l. BEGIN BY GETTING SOME DEFINITIONS, in this case, definitions of “happiness” and “justice.”
Start with a good dictionary.
- WHAT ARE THE ETYMOLOGICAL derivations of key philosophical terms? What are the root metaphors on the basis of which the technical terms are constructed? What do they have in common? What kind of things can be “put together?” The point I am getting at is that you ought to be trying to get at the conceptual presuppositions that underlie any philosophical problem. These usually begin in ordinary language.
- Do the key concepts have a clear application to the world? That is, is there any difficulty in deciding, given the concept of happiness, about instances of happiness? Is it clear to you what would count as an instance of happiness or of justice in the context of morality? What problems are raised by the application of these concepts to the world?
- Order the problems. This point is crucial. After having discovered a nest of problems through your initial groundwork you should now ask yourself, “which problems require a solution before the other problems can be solved? What is basic and what depends on the basic?” For example, isn’t it necessary to know first what Aristotle understands to be the structure of the human soul before we can consider what happiness in the soul is? Don’t we have to understand which is the more comprehensive notion, morality or justice, before we can say how they are related? Remember: Some problems are more basic than others. Order your questions. It will save a lot of time.
b. Research
In the case of our essays in this course, you need only concentrate on the primary readings. You will be looking for basically three things: (1) definitions, (2) distinctions, and (3) arguments.
l. Definitions. How does your author define key philosophical terms? If he offers no definitions in the text you are using, does he presume certain definitions? Write down the definitions which are explicit. Write out definitions you think are implicit. Does the failure to define terms leave his arguments ambiguous? - Distinctions. How does the author “cut up” the world with his concepts? What are the different senses in which he uses words. Many philosophical problems are greatly aided in their solution by distinguishing senses of words. To do this it will be useful to fill your head with lots of examples and ask how the relevant word or concept would cover these. Make a list of different uses of a concept. How are these uses alike? How do they differ?
- Arguments. Your most important job is to extract an argument from the text. All arguments have premises and a conclusion. . The conclusion should be a statement of the author’s position. The premises contain the statements of the evidence leading to these conclusions. Extract these arguments. The backbone of your essay will be the examination of these arguments. You will be using two standards for examination: (a) Is the argument valid, that is does the conclusion follow logically from the premises (that is, assuming the premises are true, does the conclusion then follow.) (b) Are the premises true? Are they intended by the author to be self-evidently true or does he adduce evidence for them? Working from the basic argument you will begin to hunt for hidden premises, alternative premises that would make an invalid argument valid, etc. All the time your eye will be on the conclusion and the question: “Is it true?” Can he prove it? Can I prove it? Remember: Philosophy is mainly concerned with arguments.
III. Preparation of Essay
a. The outline. Among the most common flaws in undergraduate essays are lack of clarity in thought and expression and lack of coherent organization. Student essays tend to ramble and this indicates a mind at sea. It is possible, however, to minimize these problems by employing a purely mechanical device. Make an outline. Now I do not mean an outline of the form: I. Introduction. II. Argument, III. Conclusion. This is too superficial and consequently worthless. An outline should be detailed and represent a logical progression of thought. There should be a heading or sub-heading for every paragraph in the essay. Nothing should be put into the essay that has not been justified in your mind beforehand and already represented in the outline. Every paragraph in the essay should have a distinct place in the exposition and/or criticism of the arguments. The exposition should unfold premise by premise, the criticism point by point.
b. The outline (Second Stage). The creation of the outline should be guided by thought of what the topic requires, that is, given the topic, what are the orderly steps to be taken in dealing with it? In the second stage you will begin going through the outline point by point and thinking about what to say for each point. You will now discover a happy result. Your essay will be about 75% finished! The actual writing of the essay will be almost anti-climactic. The main work of your essay–which is an exercise in philosophical thinking and not the search for a stylish turn of a phrase–is in your head and not on paper. The paper is just a record of your real work. The creation of a tight, critically justified outline will help eliminate the cotton candy that many students use to pad their essays. It is not necessary to begin with a paragraph on the greatness of your subject or the world-moving importance of your problem. There is no need to end with a stirring tribute to the glory of philosophy and the meaning of life. These are superfluous. You are writing an essay for someone who has heard these platitudes a thousand times before. Their addition is extremely irritating to most professors. Their absence is bound to make a good impression. Start with your substantive points. End your essay when these are completed. Remember, don’t try to do everything at once. Be systematic. Take your points one at a time. And by all means, do not worry about being too narrow. Your major worry will almost always be about being too superficial.
IV. Writing the Essay.
a. If you have spent adequate time on the outline, you should now be in a position to produce your essay. Having thought out all the major points beforehand, you can now give your complete attention to the special problems of communicating these points. One overall principle should guide you: clarity. Your writing should be a window to your thinking. You will most likely be able to achieve this if you stick to straightforward English prose. Every sentence should express one clear thought. Grammar and syntax count. Remember, there is nothing childish about a short, clear, declarative sentence. It is a good sentence if it clearly and accurately reflects your thought when read.
b. Hints on Composition
i. Define the key philosophical terms you introduce. Obviously you cannot define everything. Nevertheless, when you use a philosophical term in your argument you should make the reader aware of the meaning. ii. Purge your writing of all jargon. Jargon comes in two varieties: the blatant and the subtle. They are equally obnoxious. Some examples of the first variety are: “interpersonal,” “meaningful” and “relevant.” Some examples of the second are: “important,” “in terms of,” and “valid.” The use of jargon words and phrases can only be avoided by careful scrutiny of every sentence of your essay.
iii. Use examples and counter-examples when possible. Nothing conveys the thrust of an argument as well as a cleverly chosen example. Examples illuminate principles. Nothing conveys your argument against a position as well as a devastating counter-example. Nothing supports an argument an impressively as the anticipation of possible counter-examples to the argument and the answers to these.
iv. Remember that your reader is not inside your head. Don’t expect your reader to make the associations and leaps that are not explicitly laid out in the paper but which went on in your thinking. In philosophy it is almost impossible for your reasoning to be too explicit. Remember: Straightforward sentences. Arguments. No padding.
*Adapted from “Some Hints For Composing Philosophy Essays” by L. P. Gerson